As one of the most fundamental relationship between people and nature and between people and people, agricultural systems are where tensions in these relationships are most starkly exposed. All human societies rely on agriculture either directly or indirectly, and the dynamics of these relationships differ both over time and between different places and cultures.
It is becoming increasingly common knowledge that across the world many of our agri-food systems are in poor health and causing more problems than solutions. Chemical intensive and monoculture farming has prioritised output at the expense of understanding what makes an ecosystem function effectively over the long term. In turn, human health has suffered with quantity prioritised over quality, and a growing disconnect between the food we eat and the ecosystems that support its production.
Globalisation of ‘agriculture as extraction’
Agriculture has recently been in the spotlight in relation to climate change – the world’s greatest challenge now and for the foreseeable future. Agriculture sits at the heart of what needs to be done to mitigate emissions and ensure adaptation so we can feed the global population without leaving anyone behind or further disrupting socio-ecological systems. Globally, greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture, forestry, and other land use sector have increased by 20% between 1970 and 2010, contributing to around 20-25% of global emissions. Agriculture contributes to emissions in a variety of ways, for example application of agricultural chemicals; methane from livestock and rice cultivation; deforestation from expansion of agricultural land. Increasing human populations and changing dietary preferences are driving increases in livestock numbers, area under cultivation, and increasing use of heavy chemicals. Shifting focus from macro to micro, many of our agri-food systems today are also causing localised environmental degradation and disrupting sensitive ecosystem services that underpin productive human-nature relationships.
Modern, intensive, extractive agriculture was born in the US and Europe, and was transmitted around the world through waves of technology transfer know as ‘green revolutions’. The promotion of high yielding seed varieties, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and mechanisation to parts of Asia from the 1950s was remarkably successful in increasing agricultural output and boosting food security. However, it also had multiple negative unintended consequences. The shift to chemical intensive agriculture contributed to environmental degradation and widening inequalities between those who could afford high-yielding inputs and those who could not. Some of the new agricultural practices introduced have been beneficial, but it has also led to loss of knowledge of locally well adapted crop varieties (landraces) and practices. While Africa was largely exempt from the first green revolution, multiple subsequent efforts have been made to revolutionise agriculture in this highly diverse continent with varying effects for people and the environment.
The dominant way we farm in many parts of the world today is eroding the resource base on which we survive.
This will affect all of us. Poor farmers in countries increasingly affected by drought and extreme weather events will experience pathways our of poverty closing off. Farmers in places like the US and Europe will find their soils eroding, crop yields falling and profit margins shrinking as they become ever more reliant on agricultural inputs to replace their natural resource base. Eventually, consumers will see rising prices for food and emptier supermarket shelves. Unless we act now, trends may become irreversible.
The way forward – regenerative agriculture
Agriculture should not be something we do to the land, but rather something we do in partnership with the land and the ecosystems it supports. This is the basis for holistic land management. While the scale of agricultural enterprises varies hugely across the world, all farmers essentially face the same challenge: how to maximise yield from a unit of land with the lowest labour, time, and capital inputs. With that in mind, the underlying principles I am about to present are of relevance to farmers across the world, adapted for local context. I have read about their impact in the US and UK and observed their impact on commercial and smallholder fields alike in Tanzania, Zambia, South Africa, and Ghana.
There are five core principles to for regenerative agriculture. Here I am drawing heavily on Gabe Brown’s book Dirt to Soil, which tells the story of his journey from conventional to regenerative agriculture in the US. It is a masterful book that is informative yet easy to read and I highly recommend it.
- Limit disturbance
Minimum tillage is the core principle of regenerative agriculture and is the practice that has the greatest impact. Topsoil – the top 2 to eighteen inches – is where a vast array of soil biodiversity can be found including fungi, microbes, protozoa, nematodes, and earthworms. It is also important for sequestering carbon in the soil. Ploughing destroys topsoil structure and disrupts its core functions like water filtration, nutrient cycling, and carbon sequestration. By limiting disturbance through minimum or no tillage, the structure and function of the topsoil remains intact. Limiting disturbance through application of agro-chemicals is also key. Agro-chemicals like fertilisers and herbicides replace processes otherwise driven by soil biodiversity. Application of fertiliser therefore goes hand in hand with disturbance of the topsoil – if the topsoil is no longer functioning effectively then there is greater need for agro-chemicals. It may take time and gradual transition, but if disturbance is limited topsoil can regenerate.
2. Protect the soil
Bare soil is at greater risk of soil erosion and is not benefitting from nutrient cycling in the soil. Maintaining a cover crop between cash crop seasons protects the soil, as does leaving crop residue on the fields. As well as being an investment in future cash crop health, it can also be monetised, for example as livestock feed.
3. Diversity
If you go to any relatively wild place a common observation is diversity. If untouched by human activity, plants do not naturally segregate themselves into neat rows of different species. Each crop species cycles nutrients and moisture in the soil in a different way. Crop diversity therefore boost soil health which in turn boost crop productivity. Including legumes in crop mix is especially key for their role in fixing nitrogen in the soil. Diversity can be achieved through crop rotations, planting a diverse cover crop mix, or intercropping. The mix of crops planted will depend on the needs of the farm, for example improving soil moisture or nutrient cycling, boosting organic matter, or attracting pollinators.
4. Naturally feed the soil
Maintaining roots in the soil ensures continual soil nutrient cycling, production of organic matter to feed soil microbiology, and sequestering of carbon in the soil. This does not mean continually mining the soil through planting monocultures year-round, but links closely with the principles of diversity and protecting the soil.
5. Integrate animals into the system
Our current production models tend to segregate crop and livestock farming. However, both can benefit from integrated systems. I am not going to address the ethical issues around livestock farming. I have been a vegetarian for most of my adult life due to concerns about the disconnect in places like the UK and Europe between purchasing meat on demand at the supermarket and the industrial processes that feed that demand. I have come to the position that it is mainly ‘not the cow, it’s the how’ that is the central issue driving livestock’s environmental impact and many welfare concerns, to quote Nicolette Hahn Niman. If carefully managed, grazing ruminants can support soil fertilisation and soil nutrient cycling. To learn more about this I would recommend Hahn Niman’s book Defending Beef. However, there is also an urgent need to address the demand side so consumption of cheap meat reduces in some places (mainly US and Europe) and rises in areas where consumption is low and increases can be of nutritional benefit, for example much of rural sub-Saharan Africa.
Beyond the farm gate
Taking a regenerative agriculture approach on the farm is a crucial step towards a more balanced relationship between people and nature in our agri-food systems. However, the farm is not an isolated system – it is situated in a broader socio-ecological context. From a sociological perspective, all farms have a history. In general, most have a history where their enclosure is a relatively recent phenomenon, and there is a longer rich history criss-crossed by community and seasonal use. If done well, farm enclosure can facilitate sustainable land management, biodiversity conservation, and decent jobs. However, it must be recognised that it may also entrench inequalities and divorce local people from land-based livelihood opportunities. This true in the Highlands of Scotland as it is in sub-Saharan Africa.
Ecologically, the farm is situated in a broader landscape and will impact and be impacted by ecosystem processes within that landscape. When farms invest in irrigation, introduce new crop species, clear land, or treat it with chemicals, the broader upstream and downstream impacts of these changes need to be considered.
To fully transition to a more socially and environmentally just and sustainable agri-food system, we need to go beyond the farm gate and understand this broader socio-ecological context.
NW Impact Consulting 